team+15+Somalia



Somalia

I**ntroduction**


toc The nation of Somalia has existed for more than 2,000 years. It occupies 637,657 sq km [|(1)]. As of July 2011, the country’s estimated population reaches 9,925,640 (1). This country, rich with culture, has experienced years of corrupted government and political ruling. For over a decade, Somalia has faced instability, violence, and death. Although it is a country in which Islam is practiced by almost 100% of the people, the country’s structure is extremely unstable. In the late 1880s, Britain, Italy and France arrived to Somalia looking to colonize the country (1). It was after this point that Somalia has been in and out of various leaders and political systems. Somalia has experienced years of serious famine and drought. Although Somalia has been characterized as the poorest and most violent country in the world, its people still continue to hold onto religious and cultural values.

(Lujain Mahmoud)

Government & Politics
Since 1991, Somalia has not had a functioning government. It wasn't until the late 1880s that foreigners arrived, looking to colonize the country. Britain, Italy and France each claimed their own part of Somalia, struggling for the next 50 years over who got a bigger piece. Finally, in 1960, Somalia gained its independence yet conditions remained unstable [|(2)].

In 1969, a coup d'etat took place, meaning a group of people overthrew the government. Mohamed Siad Barre, the general of the group who lead the coup became the president of Somalia and remained in that position until 1991 (2). Throughout his time as president, Mohamed Siad Barre attempted to reclaim Somali territory from neighboring Ethiopia. The people of Somalia became restless and in 1991 the government was overthrown again (2). In 2004, The Transitional Federal Government (TGF) was formed with a five-year mandate. It controls the executive branch of the government. It is also known to be the most recent attempt at restoring national institutions to Somalia after the 1991 collapse. Sheikh Sharif currently leads the country of Somalia [|(1)]. In February 2011, the TFG unilaterally extended its mandate by 3 years, from August 2011 to August 2014, without consultation with the international community (2). The international community almost unanimously opposed this action due to the absence of a TFG roadmap for securing the end of the transition and completing the transitional tasks outlined in the Djibouti Peace Agreement, and the lack of projected governance reforms (2). The TFG agreed in June 2011 to extend its mandate for 12 months as part of the Kampala Accord (2). This accord consigned the TFG to finish its transitional tasks and set up a permanent government by August 2012. On September 6, 2011, the TFG and representatives from Puntland signed the “Roadmap to End the Transition” toward political reform in anticipation of the end of the TFG’s extended mandate in 2012 (2).This set forward goals like working toward a permanent constitution, holding elections, and reforming Somalia’s 550-member parliament (2). "Two regional administrations exist in northern Somalia--the self-declared "Republic of Somaliland" in the northwest and the semi-autonomous state of Puntland in the northeast." (2).

(Lujain Mahmoud)

Colonialism
Somalia was partitioned by the European colonial powers after the late 19th century [|(3)]. Parts of the north region were known as British Somaliland, while much of the South became known as Italian Somalia. There were many differences in the colonial economic policies of Italy and Britain. Italy had a more efficient economic plan for the more agricultural southern Somalia while British Somaliland was neglected (3).

Under this colonial economic order, the clans began changing into political identities linked to economic benefits or disadvantages (3). Rivalry was found everywhere, especially once the end of colonialism produced the first unified Somali State (3).

In 1960, the southern Italian Somalia and northern British Somaliland joined to form the Somali Republic (3). In this new order, the south obtained more power over the underdeveloped north. The prestigious Isaaq clan became a national minority (3). The Darood clan, which was once a minor part in the north, rejoined the south to form a powerful new group. Tensions between the clans grew, as they aligned with rival political parties (3).

Although the clan relations became tense, the 1960-1969 Somali Republic was once considered a model post-colonial state. Political participation overtook many Western democracy systems (3). Suffrage was granted to women in 1963 (3). This was all ended in 1969, when a bodyguard assassinated President Sharmarke and the army began to take power over the country (3). It was after this point that major general Siad Barre would become the head of a military regime joined with the Soviet Union.

(Lujain Mahmoud)

Major General Siad Barre 1969-1990
Somalia’s experience in colonial democracy ended in October 1969, when Major General Siad Barre took power. Barre formed the Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC) and declared an end to “tribalism, nepotism, corruption, and misrule" [|(3)]. The SRC aligned with the Soviet Union and denounced U.S. African policy as being imperialist (3). During this time, Barre set out to transform Somali society through “scientific socialism” which was an ideology that involved Marxism with some Quranic interpretation (3). Barre publicly announced to get rid of the clan system. However, the regime did the complete opposite. In the 1970s, Barre formed a new intelligence agency made of members of his clan called the National Security Service (5). It was responsible for intelligence and security, that became known as the “Somali Gestapo” or a secret police force that used torture to suppress citizens and attack civil freedoms (5).

The SRC became extremely important in foreign affairs and in 1974, Somalia and the Soviet Union ended a treaty of friendship and cooperation (3). Tensions began to increase along the Somali-Ethiopian border and these tensions increased after the accession to power in Ethiopia in 1973 of the **Mengistu Haile Mariam regime**, which turned toward the Soviet Union (3). After the overthrow of the Ethiopian Emperor in 1975, Somalia invaded Ethiopia in 1977 attempting to gain the Ogaden (3). Conquering the ethnic Somali regions of Ethiopia has always been one of Barre’s policies. The Soviet Union backed the new Marxist government of Ethiopia and withdrew their support from Barre. Refugees soon came from Ogaden and from the drought stricken regions in the horn. By 1983, 1.3 million refugees arrived in Somalia. Barre favored Ogadeen refugees over the Isaaq clan (5).

Going back to 1979, a group of Isaaq members formed the Somali National Movement (SNM) with the goal of completely overthrowing Barre (5). By 1982, they were ready to launch an invasion from their base in Ethiopia. After Barre’s military strength was weakened, the U.S. government gave Barre’s regime 163.5 million dollar in military technology, and four times as much in economic aid from 1980-1988 (3). With the U.S. support that Barre received, his army amounted to 120,000 troops. This was soon to be turned against its own civilians (3).

(Lujain Mahmoud)

Bloodshed Under Siad Barre 1978-1991
Through the early 1980s, the Isaaq Somali National Movement planned a guerilla war against the government (5). To weaken the Isaaq clan, Barre organized the Ogadeen refugees in the north into paramilitaries (5). When the Somali National Movement invaded the camp for Ogadeen refugees in 1988, Barre retaliated with a complete military assault on Isaaq civilians in the north (5). A year later, Barre ordered the bombing of northern towns and villages. The city of Hargeisa, which is the second largest city in Somalia, was focused on the most. 70% of the city was destroyed under Barre’s orders. Thousands were killed and many Somalis fled to Ethiopia where they stayed in refugee camps (5).

Collapse of the Somali State 1991
The Somali army by the end of the 1980s, separated and members rejoined their clan militia (3). Barre’s territorial control became reduced to the areas surrounding Mogadishu, which resulted in the withdrawal of external assistance and support, including the United States (3). By the end of 1990, the Somali state was in the final phases of collapse. In December 1990, Barre declared a state of emergency as the Somali National Movement forces headed towards Mogadishu (3). In January of 1991, armed opposition forces drove Barre out of power, which resulted in the complete collapse of the central government. Barre died in exile in Nigeria (4).

(Lujain Mahmoud)

[[image:iah211dfall2011/Picture_1.png width="165" height="244" align="left" link="http://unchildrights.blogspot.com/2010/05/childrens-rights-in-somalia.html"]]**Secession of Somaliland 1991**
After the fall of Siad Barre's Regime in 1991, Somalia was left to different clans, militias, and warlords to shape the country. The Somali National Movement (SNM), made up of mostly Isaaq clan members, aimed to succeed the southern part of Somalia and to create its own nation state called, "The Republic of Somaliland" in the Northwest. Somaliland declared its independence in 1991 though it is not internationally recognized as its own nation state [|(6)]. In 1993 the //shir beeleed,// or Clan Conference, set in Booroma, established a Peace Charter that created the foundation for Law based on traditional, clan social order [|(6)]. A National Charter was also established which would set guidelines for politics and government and would later become the basis of the May 2001 referendum of its Constitution [|(7)]. The National Charter established dual parliament: a House of Representatives and a House of Elders. After seceding Somalia, Somaliland has not only established a basis for a functioning government, but has also established its currency--the Somaliland Shilling, introduced Somaliland newspapers, and built "national and civil war monuments" [|(7)]. While Somalilanders see the future of Somalia as two separate states--one being Somalia and the other Somaliland--Somalia, along with the State of Puntland, has a "one-state vision" (7).

State of Puntland: Established 1998
Somaliland's greatest obstacle for gaining international recognition is its neighboring state, to the east, called The State of Puntland. Puntland was formed in the aftermath of the collapse of Siad Barre's Regime (1978-1990), and it was shaped from the military group called the Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF)[|(7)]. The SSDF leader, Cabdullahi Yusuf became president of Puntland. In 1998, after pressures of establishing governance in the north-eastern area of Somalia, administrators established a 'Charter of the State of Puntland' (7). This Charter established a House of Representatives and was implemented "as the first step...towards creating an alternative to the secessionist option" [|(Hoehne, Markus V., p. 262)]. Conflict between Somaliland and Puntland in the years following the establishment of these two statehoods, has been a result of border disputes over land between both states. "Up to now, state formation has been limited to the central regions of Somaliland and Puntland, where the government institutions, but also international organizations and NGOs, are predominately located" [|(Hoehne, Markus V., p. 271)].

(Margaret Barnes)

Harakat al-Shabaab al-Mujahideen (HSM)
Al Shabaab, which means “the youth” in Arabic, is a somewhat organized, militant Islamist group in Somalia. Aden Hashi Ayro, a former military chief of the Islamic Courts Union (ICU) who had previously received training with Al Qaida and the Taliban in Afghanistan, established al-Shabaab as early as 2004 [|(1)]. Ayro attracted disaffected young Somalis by combining Somali nationalism, reverence for Islam and after 2006 a call to expel Ethiopian military forces that had moved into Somalia at the request of the Somali Transitional Federal Government (TFG) (1). From the beginning, al-Shabab has been a decentralized organization and increasingly subject to clan and regional fissures. There are persistent reports that Sudanese, Saudis, Egyptians, Pakistanis and Yemenis have joined al-Shabab and that most of its funding comes from Somali diasporas and foreign Islamist supporters (1).As of 2011, the group controls large parts of the southern parts of Somalia where it is said to have imposed its own strict form of Shaira law. As with other organized groups in Somalia, al-Shabab likely obtains a residual cut from some of the piracy ransom funds (1). Al-Shabaab members, alleging ulterior motives on the part of foreign organizations, have also reportedly intimidated, kidnapped and killed aid workers, leading to a suspension of humanitarian operations [|(2)]. It is frequently referred to as a terrorist group in the media, and the U.S. State Department designated it a terrorist group in March, 2008 and there have been repeated accusations about the group’s links with Al Qaida[| (3).] However, it also may be seen as a political party, a militia, and/or a movement.

(Kelsey Mulka) 2. http://allafrica.com/stories/201107260329.html 3. http://www.hrw.org/world-report-2011/somalia ||
 * 1. []

-Globe Image: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Somalia_(orthographic_projection).svg 1- CIA. //World Fact Book: Somalia//. 2011. Web. . 2-"Somalia." //U.S. Department of State//. Web. 02 Dec. 2011. . 3-http://www.cja.org/article.php?list=type&type=287 4-Somali friend 5-http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2863.htm 6- Kaplan, Seth. "The Remarkable Story of Somaliland." // Journal of Democracy // 19.3 (2008): 143-57. // Project Muse //. The Johns Hopkins University Press. Web. . 7. Hoehne, Markus V. "Mimesis and Mimicry in Dynamics of State and Identity Formation in Northern Somalia (Markus Hoehne) - Academia.edu." // Max Planck Institute for Social Anthropology - Academia.edu //. Edinburgh University Press. Web. 05 Dec. 2011. . ||
 * (Lujain and Margaret)

People[[image:somali-refugees.jpg width="204" height="150" align="left" caption="Retrieved from: english.alshahid.net"]]
The majority of Somalia’s population is Somali. About 85 percent of Somalis are Bantu and the other 15 percent include non-Somalis, including 30,000 Arabs. Although Somali is the national language, Arabic, Italian, and English are used as well. The people are divided into five main clans and many other subclans. Islam is the countries religion. Most Somalis are Sunni. Clearly, tribalism is a big part of Somali culture. Somali dialects are divided into three main groups: Northern, Benaadir and Maay. “ Most local residents are young, with a median age of 17.6 years; about 45% of the population is between the ages of 0–14 years, 52.5% is between the ages of 15–64 years, and only 2.5% is 65 years of age or older. The gender ratio is roughly balanced, with proportionally about as many men as women” (1). The literacy rate for Somalis is approximately 37.8%; males more than females. The life expectancy for the total population is about 50 years. Somali work force comprises mostly of agricultural, trading, and handicraft jobs.

(Lujain Mahmoud)
 * 1- CIA. //World Fact Book: Somalia//. 2011. Web. . ||

Economy
Despite the lack of effective national governance, Somalia has managed to maintain an informal economy. Agriculture is the biggest and most important sector with livestock providing about 40% of GDP and more than 50% of export wealth [|(1)]. This division of the economy suits the majority of the population which are nomads and semi-pastoralists. Other crops produced for domestic consumption are cotton, maize, and sorghum. Livestock, hides, fish, charcoal, and bananas are Somalia's principal exports, while sugar, sorghum, corn, qat, and machined goods are the principal imports (1). Other crops produced for domestic consumption are cotton, maize, and sorghum. Somalia's small industrial sector, based on the processing of agricultural products, has largely been looted and the machinery sold as scrap metal [|(2)]. Telecommunication firms have flourished in most major cities throughout Somalia and offer the lowest international call rates on the continent (2). Hotels operate and are supported with private-security militias. Due to armed attacks on and threats to humanitarian aid workers, the World Food Program partially suspended its operations in southern Somalia in early January 2010 pending improvement in the security situation. Somalia's debts to the IMF have continued to grow. There is no formal banking sector allowing money transfer/remittance services to sprout up throughout the country. The absence of central government authority, as well as profiteering from counterfeiting, has rapidly debased Somalia’s currency. The self-declared Republic of Somaliland issues its own currency, the Somaliland shilling, which is not accepted outside of the self-declared republic (3). By the spring of 2002, the Somali shilling had fallen to over 30,000 shillings to the U.S. dollar (3).

** GDP (2010 est.): $5.896 billion **

Somalia's economy is in a fairly grim state due to the lack of governmental authority and extreme poverty. An estimated 73.4 percent of the country's population live in general or extreme poverty and the average Somali earns only $600 per year, making Somalia one of the poorest countries in the world [|(2)]. Fishing used to be one of Somalia's most profitable industries. But as piracy has increased foreign ships have become reluctant to sail the waters surrounding Somalia's coastline to buy fish and other exports. On the other hand, pirates are putting wealth back into the Somali economy. An estimated $1 million to $2 million is made from each captured ship [|(3)]. Whenever a ship is seized, pirates stock up on sheep, goats, water, fuel rice, spaghetti, milk and cigarettes in towns along Somalia’s coast. Government officials are getting a fair sum of pirate money as well. By allowing the pirates to work in controlled areas, the regional ruling organizations and elites are given shares of the pirate's earnings. About 30 percent of the collected ransom goes directly to government officials (3).

(Kelsey Mulka)

<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">2. "Somalia Economy: Overview." //The World Factbook//. Central Intelligence Agency, 10 Nov. 2011. Web. 2 Dec. 2011.< https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/so.html> <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 70%;">3. Hafner, Phillip. "Piracy Boosts Somali Economy." //Global Envision//. Marcy Corps, 27 Apr. 2009. Web. 2 Dec. 2011.< <span style="background-color: #ffffff; display: block; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Arial,Helvetica; text-align: left;">@http://www.globalenvision.org/2009/04/13/piracy-boosts-somali-economy > ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">1. "Somalia: Economy." //Encyclopedia of the Nations//. Advameg, 2011. Web. 4 Dec. 2011.< http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Somalia-ECONOMY.html#b>

Pirating
us-navy-crowdsourced-mmo-to-fight-somali-pirates/ || http://antzinpantz.com/kns/archives/37107 || http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8599347.stm || Pirating in Somalia has been an on going problem but in recent years has picked up in the number of attacks. “According to a recent BBC report, Somali pirates seized a record 1,181 hostages in 2010, and were paid many millions of dollars in ransom” [|(1)].These pirates, operating along the Somali coast having taken to taking hostages and even hijacking the occasional oil tanker have even begun to impact the tourism in Kenya’s coastline (1).
 * [[image:French_arrest_Somali_Pirates width="315" height="218"]] || [[image:somali-pirates-pic.jpg width="315" height="218"]] || [[image:Expansion_of_pirate_operations.jpg width="315" height="218"]] ||
 * http://gaming.operationreality.org/2011/05/11/

These pirates are originating their attacks in the “narrow channel known as the The Gulf of Aden” and then will head back to Puntland to house and feed their hostages (1). Due to the economic effect these attacks are having international warships are now on daily patrols looking for the small ships and now are having to look for “mother ships” that allow the pirates to cover a wider range out in the ocean (1).

Much of the individuals who are engaged in these piracy acts are poor fishermen, ex-militia, and computer geeks who operate crews between 10 or fewer riding in speed boats to catch up to the targeted ship (1). These men are armed with assault rifles and “RPGs (rocket propelled grenades)” (1). The reports are that they approach the targeted ships with the speedboats, often at night, “launch hooks and rope ladders up to board the ship and overwhelm the crew” (1).

The BBC report has stated that the economy in Puntland is nearly single handedly supported by the money brought in from pirating ships (1). The resources needed to take care of the hijacked crews and resupply the pirates with weapons has moved thousands if not millions of dollars into the local economy (1). “Successful pirates live well, they marry beautiful women, drive big cars, build big houses, and buy increasingly sophisticated weapons” (1).

A New York Times interview with a Somali pirate revealed that they don’t see themselves as bandits (1). The pirate went on to say, “We consider sea bandits those who illegally fish in our seas and dump waste in our seas and carry weapons in our seas. We are simply patrolling our seas. Think of us like a coast guard" (1). Perhaps this outlook of the pirates seeing themselves as a “coast guards” stems from the 1991 Samolian central government collapse (1). This left the country without shoreline patrols and opened up the waters to commercial poaching of fish (1). Speculation is that in order to stop these pirating acts is to have a unified stable government in Somalia (1).

(Nathan Galbreath)
 * (1). Zijlma, Anouk. "Somali Pirates." //Africa Travel//. About.com Guide, 2011. Web. 04 Dec. 2011. <http://goafrica.about.com/od/africanews/a/pirates.htm>. ||

** Geography **
|| “Somalia, situated in the Horn of Africa, lies along the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean [|(3)]. It is bound between Djibouti in the northwest, Ethiopia in the west, and Kenya from the southwest (3). The terrain mainly consists of plateaus in the south, plains in the north, and highlands in the east [|(1)]. “Somalia's long coastline (3,025 kilometers) has been of importance chiefly in permitting trade with the Middle East and the rest of East Africa. The exploitation of the shore and the continental shelf for fishing and other purposes had barely begun by the early 1990’s” (1). The plains in the north, which is referred to as “//guban// (scrub land)”, is a scrub covered semiarid land with shallow watercourses of dried sands in the dry seasons and become vegetated in the rainy seasons (1). For a period of time the //guban// provides grazing land for nomadic livestock (1). The vegetation mainly consists of grasses and low brushes that the livestock feed on, while in the northeast region it is populated with boswellia and commiphora trees (1).
 * = **Geography of Somalia**
 * = Image provided by: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Somalia_Topography_en.png ||

The highlands in the east form the Karkaar mountain ranges and are reffered to as the //Ogo// (1). The area is usually dry with broken mountain terrain and shallow plateaus (1). “In a zone of low and erratic rainfall, this region was a major disaster area during the great drought of 1974 and early 1975” (1). The more western portion of the //Ogo// does receive more rain than the east, which gives some arable land for dry land cultivators, and does have permanent wells that the nomadic peoples visit during the dry season (1).

The plateaus in the south or “//Haud//” contains some of the best grazing lands for nomads (1). This land becomes even more appreciated when the natural depressions fill into temporary ponds or lakes during the rainy season (1). “The Haud south of Hargeysa is covered mostly by a semiarid woodland of scattered trees, mainly acacias, underlain by grasses that include species especially favored by livestock as forage” (1). The //Haud// is home to the only two permanent major rivers of Somalia, the Jubba and the Shabeelle (1). These rivers move in a southern direction that opens wide valleys in the Somali Plateau (1). Of the two rivers only the Jubba enters the Indian Ocean, and the Shabeelle runs southwest parallel to the coast until dumps into the sands Jilb (1). Occasionally, the Shabeelle floods during the rainy season into the Jubba and the entire region becomes a rich agricultural area (1). Much of the natural vegetation includes aloes and succulents of the sort and the vegetation becomes denser as elevation and rainfall increases (1). (Nathan Galbreath)

** Climate **
“Arid, semidesert conditions make the country relatively unproductive [|(4)]. “Somalis recognize four seasons, two rainy (//gu// and //day//) and two dry (//jiilaal// and //hagaa//)" [|(1)]. //Gu// rains run from April into June, which brings a needed supply of fresh pasture land “and for a brief period turning the desert into a flowering garden.” (1) After the //gu// comes //hagaa//, a period of mild drought that lasts from July till September (1). Then proceeding //hagga// is //day//, the last rainy season that runs from October to November (1). The last season, //jiilaal//, runs from December to March and is the worst of the droughts; making it very difficult for pastoralists and herds (1). “Most of the country receives less than 500 millimeters of rain annually, and a large area encompassing the northeast and much of northern Somalia receives as little as 50 to 150 millimeters” (1). (Nathan Galbreath)

** Oceanography **
Somalia has an ocean current that changes off the east coast of Africa throughout the year. (2) The Somali Current or the “ East Africa Current” changes direction when the monsoon seasons change between the South-West Monsoon and the North-East Monsoon. (2)

The South-West Monsoon season, which runs from November into February, brings warm water from the Indian Ocean south along the shore of Somalia and travels the coast until it crosses the Equator and turns east back into the ocean. (2) This warm water directs the winds inland and with them brings precipitation to recharge the ground and promote new vegetation growth.

The North-East Monsoon runs from June into September. At this point in the year the current has changed from the southwest direction to moving north along the Somali coast. (2) The current starts from south of the Equator along Africa’s east coast, moves north across the Equator and turns east into the Indian Ocean before reaching the tip of the Horn of Africa. (2) The winds will now be moving east out into the ocean and will no longer be bringing precipitation to the land. This in turn will start a dry period.

These changes in ocean current direction make the rain patterns in Somalia very sporadic. With long periods of drought life for the locals is very rough. Agriculture is very difficult to maintain and nomadic herding is a never ending search for a reliable water source. With food in short supply the people of Somalia are under constant conflict with one for resources to survive.

(A)(B) (A.) The South-West Monsoon season that brings warm moist air from the Indian Ocean over land.(B.) The North-East Monsoon season that brings cooler drier air from land out into the Indian Ocean. || (Nathan Galbreath) 2. Nielsen, Ole H. "Ocean Currents." //What on Earth//. 10 Apr. 2007. Web. 29 Nov. 2011. <http://whatonearth.olehnielsen.dk/currents.asp>. 3. "Somalia." //Nformation Please® Database//. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Web. 30 Nov. 2011. <http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0107979.html?pageno=1>. 4. "Somalia." //The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia.// © 2000–2007 Pearson Education, publishing as Infoplease. 30 Nov. 2011 <http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0845894.html>. ||
 * < ===Somali Current a.k.a. "East Africa Coast Current"===
 * < Images provided by: http://whatonearth.olehnielsen.dk/currents.asp ||
 * 1. Butler, Rhett A. "Somalia - GEOGRAPHY." //Mongabay.com//. Web. 29 Nov. 2011. <http://www.mongabay.com/reference/country_studies/somalia/GEOGRAPHY.html>.