team+11+Oman

The Sultanate of Oman toc

=__Geography__= The terrain in Oman is made up of mountains, plains, and an arid plateau. 15% of the total area is composed of mountains; most notable are the Al Hajr mountains and the Al Qara mountain range. Approximently 82% of the total area of Oman is made up of sand and desert. Oman's cost comes into contact with the Gulf of Oman, Arabian Gulf, and the Arabian Sea. The country is also located on the Tropic of Cancer. The climate is hot and humid along the coast, hot and dry in the interior, and a summer monsoon occurs in the far south. Oman is split up into administrative divisions, but as each represents a certain area within Oman they can be seen as a way to categorize the territory. They are all known as governorates, and include: Muscat, Al Buraimi, Al Dakhiliyah, Al Batinah North, Al Batinah South, Al Sharqiyah North, Al Sharqiyah South, Al Dhahria North and Al Wasta.
 * Area:** About 309,500 sq. km.
 * Coastline:** 3,165 km


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By: Victoria Betke

=__A Brief Early History of Oman__= > Sultan Said bin Sultan al-Busard's sons. Zanzibar and its African dependencies become under the rule of one son, and Muscat and Oman become under control of the other son.
 * 7th century: Islam came to the area, which drove out many Iranians that had been living in the area. Arab domination in the region took hold.
 * Early on, the Ibadiyah form of Islam is introduced and takes hold. Imam's gain ruling power.
 * 1508-1650: Oman is occupied and controlled by the Portuguese.
 * 1737: Persians invade, but are driven out by 1749.
 * 5 imamates before the founding of the Al Said dynasty began.
 * 1744 Al Said dynasty begins when Ahmad ibn Said al Said was elected imam.
 * 18th century brings about Oman's acquisition of the island Zanzibar off the African coast
 * 1798: First contract made between Britain and Oman
 * 1856: Sultan Said bin Sultan al-Busard dies( first of Al Said dynasty to be known as sultan, started as a mishap with Indian government because of his name). His death leads to fighting between sons over power.
 * 1861: Due to intervention by the British government, The Canning Award was put into place, dividing Oman and settling the fight for power between
 * 1891: Sultan Said bin Turki agreed that: "neither he nor his successors would lend, sell, or lease territory to anyone but the British.
 * 1913: Conflict began between sultan and imam, as imam sought to have complete rule over interior of country.
 * 1920: Conflict over power temporarily subsided as a British brokered agreement results in the sultan recognizing the interiors autonomy.

By: Victoria Betke
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__Sultanate of Oman 1932-1958__ By: Steve Jenkins

=__Sultanate of Oman 1959-1985__=

**Sultan Said bin Taimur** Sultan Said bin Taimur's rule was characterized by many of the same issues that previous Sultans had dealt with, such as balancing relationships and control with the imams of interior Oman and the British. In 1951, Said signed a new treaty with the British, renewing their long-standing relationship and in which Britain recognized Oman as a fully independent state. This did not mean the end of British influence and support in and for Oman though. With the discovery of oil in Oman, a change in the concept of power occurred, and past conflict between the Sultan and Imam was once more brought up with a renewed struggle for control over Oman's interior. This resulted in a five year rebellion by the Imam against the Sultan's attempt to extend his control (government control) to the interior of the country. The Imam was defeated in 1959 with British help. After this conflict the Sultan eliminated the Treaty of Seeb ( established in 1920, arranged by Britain, to end previous Sultan-Imam conflicts, gave Imam autonomous rule of interior Oman) and eliminated the office of the Imam. The extension of control sought by the Sultan was due to the shift from a more tribal, relationship based means of control and influence to a territorial concept of power. This shift also led to a fight for power with the Saudi King, who had up to that point retained some influence in Oman because of relationships formed with some of the Omani tribes. In 1952 Saudi troops occupied the Buraymi Oasis, and the conflict ended with an international tribunal. The discovery of oil in Oman had a shaky start, but it became an important change in the economy which can be attributed to Sultan Said bin Taimur. A 1925 geological survey of Oman did not show any conclusive evidence of oil in the country, leading to and end to the search. It wasn't until 1937, when geologists were searching for oil in neighboring Saudi Arabia, that Sultan Said granted a 75 year concession to the Iraq Petroleum Company so they would resume the search for oil in Oman. The search was delayed by WWII, but was underway. The 1954 conflicts made it difficult for the geologists, as tribal conflicts prevented them from searching in some areas believed to be prosperous. This also led to a continuous change in location of the search for oil. Dry wells became the result of some of the drilling that did occur, so that by 1960 many partners originally invested in the search dropped out. By 1962 they struck oil at Yibal. In 1963, oil was discovered at Natih and by 1964 oil was found at Fahud. This was the discovery that led to the start of oil extraction and production in Oman. July, 26, 1967 was the date of the first oil export. Despite the much needed economic boost and advancement the oil industry provided for Oman, Sultan Said's reign is seen as having a feudal and isolationist approach to it. 1964 was not only the beginning of oil extraction in Oman, but the beginning of the separatist revolt in Oman's Dhofar province. This revolt was aided by communist and leftist governments, gaining support in areas such as Yemen. The rebels formed the Dhofar Liberation Front, which later merged to become the PFLOAG (Popular Front for the Liberation of Oman and the Arab Gulf), and by 1974 the PFLO (Popular Front for the Liberation of Oman). The rebels declared intention was to overthrow all traditional Arab Gulf regimes. As they spread their movement into other countries the organization that the rebels developed took a more political approach, while maintaining guerilla warfare tactics in Dhofar. This revolt became an issue that lasted into Sultan Qaboos bin Said's reign, which began in 1970.

Qaboos bin Said became Sultan in a coup against his father in 1970, that was accomplished with help from British advisors. The former Sultan, Said bin Taimur was exiled to Britain as a result of the coup. Once in power, Sultan Qaboos took action to abolish some of the harsh restrictions that had existed under his father's reign. He offered amnesty to previous opponents of the regime, established a modern government structure, and launched a major development program. The development program upgraded education and health facilities, helped to develop the countries natural resources, and build a modern infrastructure. In response to the ongoing insurgency in the Dhofar region, Sultan Qaboos expanded the armed forces and offered amnesty to all the surrendered rebels. He also obtained military support from Britain, Iran, and Jordan. These actions led to the rebels being confined to a 50 sq. km. area by the Yemen border by 1975 and they were defeated shortly after. The threat from the PFLO diminished further with the October 1983 diplomatic relations that were set up between South Yemen and Oman. In the same year (1975), Sultan Qaboos issued Decree 26, which established the organization of the administration and government bodies. It also established the Sultan as the source of all laws in the Sultanate. By 1979, Sultan Qaboos initiated and appointed a consultative council for agriculture and fishery. In 1981 with Decree 84, he turned the previously created consultative council into a national council (majlis istishari lil-dawla). This is the council that is today known as the Majlis al- Shura, or Shura council ( 1991, Decree 94). This council in some form controls the government. Another big step Sultan Qaboos took with reform was in foreign relations. Pre-1970, Oman only Britain and India maintained a diplomatic presence in Oman, and contact with other countries had been limited. Sultan Qaboos has expanded Oman's diplomatic relations. He supported the 1979 Camp David Accords, and even kept a relationship with Egypt after they signed the Egyptian-Israeli Peace Treaty. In 1981, he was a part of the creation of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). It was created in response to the Iran-Iraq war, and its purpose is to coordinate resistance to outside intervention in the Gulf, and try to strengthen agriculture, industry, investment, security, and trade cooperation between members. Its members include: Oman, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates. Oman has also maintained a position of being an active member of the Arab League. Sultan Qaboos has maintained a relationship with the United States, although the relationship had been started before he came to power. By 1972 a US ambassador to Oman was established. In 1980, an agreement was made which provided US forces access to Omani military facilities. At the same time the Joint Commission for Economic and Technical Cooperation was established in Muscat. This allowed the US to provide economic assistance to Oman. A US initiated Peace Corps program was set up in Oman as well, but only lasted from 1973-1983. Starting to reform the country from the moment he stepped into office, Sultan Qaboos is known for this change and for taking action on problems that arise. He has held on to power internally by recognizing the need to assert legitimization of the state to the tribes that compose Oman, who have held influence and control in Oman in the past.
 * Sultan Qaboos bin Said **


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 * [|http://andyinoman.wordpress.com/tag/oman-history/](father and son photo)
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By:Victoria Betke

=__ Sultanate of Oman 1986-2011 __=

**Transition Phase** Sultan Qaboos bin Sa'id gained power of the Sultanate of Oman in 1970. In present times, Oman is considered to be one of the most economically and politically stable countries in the Middle east. When Sulan Qaboos first took charge, the country was plagued by endemic disease, literacy and poverty. This was mainly due to his fathers harsh restrictions and laws. He soon sought out to abolish such laws and form a modern governmental structure that made way for a major development program. This program allowed the country to upgrade its educational and healthcare facilities and make better use of their natural resources. Soon, this allowed Qaboos to form a more structured government through which he appointed a cabinet of ministers. By 1986 Qaboos was almost seen as a revolutionary leader who had stabilized the country's infrastructure and political regime. During 1986-1994 Qaboos worked hard to maintain the country's diplomatic ties with Iraq and Kuwait and also tried to mediate the Iraq-Iran conflict.

Image extracted from __http://www.meed.com/pictures/586xAny/7/4/7/28747_Sultan_Qaboos.jpg__

**Maturation** Geographically located on the Strait of Hormuz, Sultan Qaboos maintained important ties with many countries during his transistion phase. At a point where no GCC (Gulf Cooperation Council) countries were willing to hold ties with Israel, he invited their prime minister to Oman. This was the first visit by an Israeli leader to the Middle-East, which showed the Sultan's lone standing efforts to strengthen ties with Israel through non-violent negotiations.

**Progress** In 1996 Sultan Qaboos in Sa'id presented his country with the "Basic Statutes of State". This was recognized as Oman's first written constitution and granted various rights to the population through Islamic and normative laws. The most interesting fact though is that the Sultan realized the conflict of interest and banned his cabinet members to be part of public shareholding organizations. This highly contributed to the increasing economic and political stability of Oman and in the succession of Sultan Qaboos. One of the Sultan's main concerns was national security, and he stressed this through the Ibadhi tradition of Islam by quoting in his 1994 national day speech "Obstinacy in religious understanding leads to backwardness in Muslims, prevalence of violence and intolerance." He negotiated with many countries in terms of aid, to improve the infrastructure and internal conditions within the country.

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By: Zubair Karim