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EGYPT



Egypt is a transcontinental country that bridges Africa and Asia. The capital of Egypt is Cairo. Egypt is one of the most populous countries in Africa and the Middle East, with about 80 million citizens. Most of the population lives along the Nile River. Egypt has one of the most diverse economies in the Middle East with sectors in agriculture and tourism to name a few. The major religion in Egypt is Islam and the official language is Arabic. Egypt has a long history of politics and culture. The government of Egypt has gone through much change throughout it's long history. Recently the government of Egypt was overthrown by protesters who were part of the larger Arab Spring. The nation is being governed by the military until elections can be held and a new government established.



Gamal Abdel Nasser   Born January 15, 1918, Gamal Abdel Nasser became one of the most influential Arab leaders of the 20th Century. He was one of the leaders of the Free Officers Movement, which helped establish a republic in Egypt. In 1956, he became the second President of Egypt, a position he held until his death in 1970. His work in nationalizing the Suez Canal and his ideas of pan-Arabism have defined his legacy in the Arab world.

**Personal Life** Nasser was born in Alexandria, Egypt, and was the oldest of three brothers. He would marry Tahia Kazim in 1944, and they would have five children of their own. His interest in politics began at a young age, and his interest continued to grow throughout his school years. In 1937, he temporarily gave up activities in politics to apply into the Royal Military Academy. He was rejected at first, but was later accepted after the Secretary of State agreed to sponsor his admittance. Upon entering the military, volunteered to do service in Sudan, and eventually became an instructor at the academy. In 1948, he participated in the Arab Israeli War, where he attempted to align with the Muslim Brotherhood. Their views were differing, and Nasser decided to pursue a different political path.

**Free Officers Movement/1952 Egyptain Revolution** Following defeat in the Arab-Israeli War, Nasser founded the Free Officers Bovement along with several other military officers. The mission of the movement was to overthrow the Egyptain Monarchy and establish a republic in the country. While Nasser was the founder of the movement, General Muhammad Naguib was the leader of the military coup that began the morning of July 23, 1952. With no support from either the British or the United States, King Farouk fled on July 26, and Naguib became the first President of Egypt two days later.

**Takeover of the Presidency** In October 1954, an assassination attempt was carried out while Nasser gave a speech in Alexandria. Unharmed, he continued the speech. Following this, Nasser continued to expand his popularity across the Arab world with Arab Nationalist themes in his speeches. He used this theme to campaign for the presidency, as his relationship with Muhammad Naguib had soured. Eventually, Naguib was overthrown, and a new Egyptain Constitution was drafted in January of 1956, and Nasser assumed the Presidency on June 23 of that same year. **Suez Canal Nationalization/Crisis** Shortly after assuming the Presidency, Nasser announced that the Suez Canal had been nationalized from British control. This increased Nasser's support all across the Middle East, as it was an action in defiance of Western influence. Not long after this announcement, France, Great Britain, and Israel, all major shareholders in the canal before nationalization, planned an attack to reclaim the canal. The Egyptain military was unprepared, and the attack was very successful for the attacking parties. However, the United States was not pleased with the attacks, and pressured the three countries to withdraw from the area. Egypt regained control of the canal, and it reopened in early 1957. As stated in a BBC article written by Roger Hardy, this event established Nasser as the "pre-eminent Arab leader" and Arab nationalism as a "leading Arab ideology." **Pan-Arabism and the United Arab Republic** Nasser was able to garner many supporters through his ideas of Pan-Arabism. Similar to Arab Nationalism, Pan-Arabism has the fundamental idea of all Arabs make up a single Arab nation free of outside influences, most notably those from Western nations. As part of this movement, Nasser joined Egypt and Syria together to form what was called the United Arab Republic in 1958. This union lasted for only three years, until economic and political problems caused Syria to revolt against Egyptain power. The Dugas article mentions how swiftly Syria struck, and how it had the support of other Arab countries that were "jealous" of Nasser's power.

**Later Years** While Nasser and his Pan-Arabism ideas remained popular after the collapse of the UAR, he never regained the same amount of political power. Dissent for his political ideas grew stronger as years passed, and defeat in the Six Day War in 1967 was a huge blow to his attempts to increase Egypt's power in the Arab world. This prompted him to resign as President, only to rescind the action the very next day. He remained President until September 28, 1970, when he died of a heart attack. Anwar Sadat assumed the position of President following Nasser's death. media type="youtube" key="q2P6NUNfENE" height="315" width="420"Short clip of Nasser's resignation speech following the Six Day War

(Matt Spivey)

Muhammad Anwar al-Sadat

// “ He who cannot change the very fabric of his thought will never be able to change reality, and will never, therefore, make any progress” -Anwar Sadat  //

Muhammad Anwar al-Sadat was a very influential leader in Egypt. He was the third president of Egypt. In his eleven years as the president of Egypt, Sadat helped veer away from Nasserism, create new economic policy and bring back the multi-party system. He was known by some as the “Surprise President” for doing much more for Egypt than was expected of him. (Finklestone)

Anwar Sadat was born on December 25th, 1918 in Mit Abu al-Kum, al-Minufiyah, Egypt. Sadat was one of 13 children born to poor, Nubian parents. Sadat was raised for many years by his grandparents. As a child he developed a fascination with the history of Egypt's resistance to British occupation. He idolized many leaders from around the work including, Kemal Ataturk, the leader of Turkey, and Hitler and the Nazis. Anwar Sadat went to the Royal Military Academy in Cairo, where he graduated in 1938.
 * Early Life**

After graduating Anwar Sadat joined the army and was made a second lieutenant and stationed in Sudan. This is where he met Nasser and they along with other officers created the Free Officer's Movement. The Free Officers Movement was organized to promote Egypt's freedom from British domination and influence. Sadat was a part of the World War 2 where he was arrested by the British. He was arrested for trying to get help from Axis Powers to rid Egypt of British power. Sadat was also a part of the launch of the Egyptian Revolution of 1952. This revolution over turned King Farouk.
 * Free Officers Movement**

Before becoming president Anwar Sadat held a number of other political positions. In 1954, under Nasser, Sadat was named the Minister of State. He took the position of Secretary to the Nation Union in 1959. From 1960-1968 Sadat was the president of the National Assembly. He then held the position of vice president twice. Anwar Sadat became the president of Egypt in 1970. He was not expected to last very long or do very well as president.
 * Presidency**

On May 15, 1971 Sadat announced a plan to rid the Egyptian government of the Nasserists. This plan was called the Corrective Revolution. The plan was to rid the government and the security forces of Nasserists. The Nasserists were often pro-soviet. His plan also included imprisoning other political forces that existed in Egypt including Liberals. Along with this Sadat supported an Islamist movement that had been smothered by Nasser.
 * Corrective Revolution**

The October War, also known as the Yom Kippur War, began on October 6, 1973. The war was brought fourth by Egypt along with Syria against Israeli forces. These forces were occupying the Sinai Peninsula in Egypt. The goal for Sadat and Egypt was to capture back the territory that the Israelis has taken 6 years prior. Egypt and Syria both did exceptionally well with their military strikes in the beginning. This shocked Israel. On October 22 1973 Resolution 338 was passed by the United States and the Soviets calling for an immediate end the the military attacks. It was agreed upon, but the ceasefire was broken right away. A second ceasefire ended the war with Israel nearing Cairo and Damascus. The early victories in the war gave Sadat a good name and raised moral in Egypt. Sadat was known as the “hero of the crossing”. This began a movement toward peace. After Egypt's gaining of some political significance the Suez Canal was opened back up and two treaties were signed moving toward Peace with Israel. Sadat tried to get support for his movement is a number of ways. He worked to gain the religious supports of Christians and the Pope. He also used the media to gain support. Sadat became the first Arab leader to ever visit Israel.
 * Yom Kippur War and the Peace Process**

On March 26, 1979, the Egyptian-Israeli Peace Treaty was singed by Anwar Sadat and Menachem Begin, the Prime Minister of Israel. It was singed in Washington DC in the United States following the Camp David Accords. The Camp David accords were a set of meetings between Egypt and Israel set up my the President of the United States, Jimmy Carter. The treaty that they signed determined a number of agreements to keep the peace between the two nations, but mainly declared mutual recognition for each country by the other. “These accords comprised two frame agreements on peace in the Middle East, and on peace between Egypt and Israel.” (Wagner) The treaty was greatly excepted in Egypt but was not very popular amongst the Arab, Muslim world. “With the Steadfast Exception of the Sudan and Oman The Arab world denounced the Egyptian-Israeli Peace Treaty. Even more seriously, though, the Egyptian left and fundamentalist right, worked and prayed for Sadat's downfall” says Raphael Israeli in his book //Man of Defiance: A Political Biography of Anwar Sadat// Despite the negative response by the Arab world, Sadat was given the Nobel Peace Prize for the treaty along with Begin. This was a first. “The choice of these laureates, according to the Nobel Committee, was notable because never before had they considered it fitting "to award the Peace Prize to statesmen from the troubled and sadly devastated Middle East." (Wagner)
 * The Egyptian-Israeli Peace Treaty**

**Final Years of Presidency and Anwar Sadat's Assassination** Towards the end of his presidency Anwar Sadat went through some controversial times. In 1977 riots protesting Sadat's economic policy broke out. These were referred to as the Bread Riots. The riots were extreme destroying many buildings in Cairo and ending with the deployment of the army. Sadat also had controversy with Islamist groups. Islamist groups stood strongly against the treaty made with Israel. Especially against the treaty was the Egyptian Islamic Jihad. The Jihad organized a plan to take over the government and take out the main leader, Sadat. Sadat got word of this and ordered a round up of all Jihad members. A portion of the Jihad was missed in the round up and on October 6th, 1981 Anwar Sadat was assassinated by Khalid Isambouli. The assassination came during the victory parade that was held in Cairo each year to celebrate Egypt's crossing of the Suez Canal. The assignation killed eleven others and wounded many. Isambouli, the assassination was later tried and executed.

(Taylor Baker)

Muhammad Hosni Sayyid Mubarak



Muhammad Hosni Sayyid Mubarak was born on May 4, 1928. He served as an Egyptian politician and military commander and was the fourth President of Egypt (1981-2011). Mubarak became the vice president in 1975 and the president on October 14, 1981, in the wake of the assassination of then President Anwar El Sadat. He was Egypt’s longest serving ruler since Muhammad Ali Pasha. Mubarak resigned on Februaury 11, 2011 following many days of protests as part of the Arab Spring. His resignation was announced by the Vice President, Omar Suleiman. Rule was transferred to the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces. Mubarak is currently on trial facing allegations of corruption and abuse of power.

**Early life** Mubarak was born on May 4, 1928, in the town of Kafr El-Meselha, Monufia Governorate. His wife is Suzanne Mubarak, and he has two sons, Alaa and Gamal. He joined the Air Force Academy. Mubarak got his commission as a pilot on March 13 1950 and received a Bachelor’s Degree in Aviation Sciences. He commanded the Cairo West Air Base in 1966 and then moved on to commanding the Beni Suef Air Base. Mubarak was appointed the Air Force Academy’s commander in November 1967 and two years later he became Chief of Staff for the Egyptian Air Force. Mubarak became the Commander of the Air Force and the Egyptian Deputy Minister of Defense in 1972 and the following year he was promoted to Air Chief Marshal. Sadat appointed Mubarak the Vice President of Egypt in April 1975.

**Presidency** Following the assassination of President Sadat in October 1981 Mubarak became the fourth President of Egypt and the Chairman of the National Democratic Party. His 29 years in power made him the longest serving President of Egypt. He was forced to resign the presidency amid protests about Egypt's poor economic conditions and political corruption.

**Return to the Arab League ** Egypt had been suspended by the Arab League for President Sadat’s peace treaty with Israel. However under Sadat in 1989 Egypt was re-admitted as a full member and the Arab Leagues headquarters was returned to Cairo.

Egypt joined the allied coalition for the 1991 Gulf War. The US government deemed Egypts support as crucial for gaining wider Arab support of the operation to liberate Kuwait from the Iraqi forces. In return for their support the US forgave around $14 billion of debt. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Despite this Mubarak did not support the invasion of Iraq in 2003. Mubarak argued that the Israeli-Palestinian conflict should be resolved first. He also believed that the invasion would lead to the increased popularity of terrorist groups.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Gulf War of 1991 and Iraq Invasion of 2003 **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Mubarak, mainly through the Arab League, has supported efforts to promote peace with Israel. The current position held by the League was established during the Beirut Summit of March 2002 and was re-endorsed during the Riyadh Summit of 2007. The plan calls for Israel to withdraw from all occupied territories including the Golan Heights, to recognize an independent Palestinian state in the West Bank and Gaza Strip with East Jerusalem as its capital. In return full normalization of relations between the member states and Israel was offered. In June of 2008 Egypt helped broker the cease fire between Israel and Hamas.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Israeli–Palestinian conflict **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">On January 25, 2011, massive protests against the Mubarak regime erupted across Egypt particularly in Cairo’s Tahrir Square. Though Mubarak promised reform and that he would not run in the next presidential election, the protests continued and clashes between pro and anti Mubarak groups became common. On February 11, 2011 Mubarak’s vice president announced that Mubarak had resigned. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Mubarak is currently on trial for murder of peaceful protestors.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Revolution and Resignation **



<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(Sean Bridenbaugh)

**Sources**
<span style="color: #4c4c4c; font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Dugas, David. "United Arab Republic of Nasser Collapses, Syria 'Declares' Independence." //Atlanta Daily World (1932-2003)//: 1. //ProQuest Historical Newspapers: Atlanta Daily World (1931-2003).// Sep 30 1961. Web. 29 Nov. 2011

<span style="color: #4c4c4c; font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">"Leader in Fight for Pan-Arabism." //New York Times (1923-Current file)//: 2. //ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The New York Times (1851-2007).// Dec 24 1969. Web. 1 Dec. 2011

//<span style="color: #4c4c4c; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12px;">Nasser: The Last Arab //<span style="color: #4c4c4c; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12px;">. St. Martins Press, 2004. //PAIS.// Web. 1 Dec. 2011.

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<span style="color: #4c4c4c; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12px;">"A Breathtaking Biography of GamalAbdelNasser." //The Washington Post, Times Herald (1959-1973)//: A22. //ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The Washington Post (1877-1994).// Nov 01 1971. Web. 4 Dec. 2011.

Images [] [] (Matt Spivey)

**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 18px;">Soucres ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Finklestone,Joseph//.// //Anwar Sadat:////visionary who dared//Frank Cass, 1996

Israeli, Rapheal//. Man of Defiance: A Political Biography of Anwar Sadat//Review by: Martin Slann//Presidential Studies Quarterly//, Vol. 17, No. 4, The Constitutional Framers and the Modern Presidency (Fall, 1987), pp. 772-774

Wagner, Heather. //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Anwar Sadat and Menachem Begin: negotiating peace in the Middle East // <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Infobase Publishing, 2007. New York

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Photos: Library of Congress

Quote[]

(Taylor Baker)

<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">ʻ Arafāt, <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">ʻ Alā<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">ʼ -D. //The Mubarak Leadership and Future of Democracy in Egypt//. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. Print. Goldschmidt, Arthur. //Modern Egypt: The Formation of a Nation-State//. Boulder, Colo: Westview Press, 2004. Print. Rutherford, Bruce K. //Egypt After Mubarak: Liberalism, Islam, and Democracy in the Arab World//. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008. Print. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hosni_Mubarak http://www.olstars.com/images/flags/Big/eg.gif http://content.answcdn.com/main/content/img/getty/5/0/80830450.jpg http://carlos9900.files.wordpress.com/2011/02/tahrir-square1.jpg (Sean Bridenbaugh)
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Sources **